Media Regulations in the GCC Countries

The issues of freedom of speech as well as the freedom of expression in journalism are actively discussed in the context of media regulations that are used in different countries to control the media sphere.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Media Regulations in the GCC Countries specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In his article â€Å"Arab Media Regulations: Identifying Restraints on Freedom of the Press in the Laws of Six Arabian Peninsula Countries† that was published in 2014, Matt Duffy analyzed specific media regulations that are followed in six Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries in contrast to traditional regulations typical for the Western countries or international approaches (Duffy, 2014, p. 2). Thus, Duffy states that media regulations characteristic for such GCC countries as Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates are stricter than the regulations ado pted in the Western countries because the discussed legislation is also developed to control the relationship between media and the public order as well as prevent false news and issues of defamation. Summary of the Main Points The article presents the analysis of the media regulations in the GCC countries in comparison with the international regulations and policies adopted in the Western world. The events of the ‘Arab Spring’ are discussed by Duffy as the trigger to pay attention to the role of media in influencing the public views and movements in the Arab world (Duffy, 2014, p. 1). The further discussion of the media regulations is provided based on the analysis of primary and secondary sources. Duffy chose to analyze the legislation related to the media spheres in the GCC countries and such secondary sources as newspaper articles and blogs in order to identify how media regulations can affect the character of the information presentation in press and online. The an alysis was supported with the theoretical framework based on the statements from the United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) regarding the correlation between the right to free expression and legal obligations.Advertising Looking for critical writing on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More As a result, the analyzed media regulations were divided into those ones correlated with the international norms according to the ICCPR and the legislation that was found outside the framework (Duffy, 2014, p. 10). The analysis and comparison of the regulations was also supported with the provided recommendations to balance the freedom of expression against the existing legislation in the GCC countries. Significance of the Author’s Ideas and Arguments In his research, Duffy focuses on a range of points that are important to be discussed in the context of the media regulations and t heir role to support the freedom of expression in the GCC countries. Duffy’s research can be considered as rather unique in its area because there is a significant research gap in the field due to the lack of unbiased studies conducted by non-Arab scholars (Duffy, 2014, p. 7). From this point, the author’s work is important to add to the limited knowledge in the sphere of medial regulations and the GCC countries. The researcher found that the differences of the regulations in the GCC countries in comparison with the international approaches are the result of the specific cultural background. Therefore, defamation can become a criminal case, the issue of truth is controversial, and the public figure is more protected in the Arab societies. Furthermore, the proposed media regulations are oriented not only to limit the journalists’ freedom of speech but also to protect the public order, reputation of public figures and rulers, and national security (Duffy, 2014, p. 16). As a result, Duffy concluded that journalists are significantly limited in their rights to free expression because of many unclear or broad laws with controversial formulations.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Media Regulations in the GCC Countries specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Significance of Duffy’s ideas is in the fact that the researcher discussed the problem of media regulations in the large social context while identifying the problematic issues, determining the causes for the problem, and recommending the ways to overcome the issues of strict media regulations. The author chose to discuss the problem in the international context, explaining the freedom of expression as the basic human right. Significance of the Findings in Relation to the International Media From this perspective, it is important to discuss significance of Duffy’s findings in relation to the context of in ternational media. The author pays much attention to comparing the media regulations in the GCC countries with the approaches in the Western countries directly. As a result, it is possible to focus on the features of both perspectives. Thus, the author noted that state-controlled media systems can develop in opposition to the norms typical for the democratic societies. Therefore, protection for public figures and officials is accentuated in the GCC countries, criminal cases on freedom of speech develop, and self-censorship is one of the main characteristic features of journalism in the GCC countries. Duffy paid attention to the fact that such media regulations are unfavorable for journalists seeking truth, it is impossible to speak about the press freedom, licensing can limit journalists, and they can be often abused if their actions are discussed as violating the public order or security. In this context, using the examples of the international approaches Duffy claims that media re gulations should be clear and free expression should be protected along with proposing effective laws to protect the public order (Duffy, 2014, p. 18). Although the media regulations seem to follow international standards in some aspects, there are many areas for improvements in legislation.Advertising Looking for critical writing on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Strengths and Weaknesses of the Research Strengths of Duffy’s research are in the fact that the author provides the detailed discussion of primary and secondary sources while proposing the effective classification to categorize regulations that can affect freedom of expression significantly in the GCC countries. The author identified the necessity to modify the current legal approaches and proposed gradual changes for the sphere of media regulations that need to become the part of civil law (Duffy, 2014, p. 29). However, there are also weaknesses in the discussion. In spite of focusing the attention on the role of social media to oppose the model of the state-controlled media, the author does not provide the broad discussion of the topic to support the idea of widespread censorship in the GCC countries. In addition, more attention should be paid to the discussion of the problems of protecting public health and morals with references to the media regulations in the GCC countri es because of the aspects of the culture and religion (Duffy, 2014, p. 18). Thus, not all restrictions can be avoided because they are supported with the culture, and they are not discussed in the society as violations of rights. Possible Agreements and Disagreements It is possible to agree with Duffy’s idea that strict media regulations prevent journalists from being objective and make them focus on self-censorship. The author is also good in providing the large and detailed discussion of the problems associated with different laws with the focus on specific articles. Furthermore, the author focuses on the limitedness of journalists’ rights when they need to mandate truth. However, providing recommendations for the legislation improvements, the author does not refer to the fact that the freedom of speech is often an issue in the GCC countries because it can be limited even in constitutions, as it was stated by the author in other sections of the article. Associated As sumptions and Biases Focusing on the author’s discussion of limitations, it is possible to assume that the analysis of the secondary sources cannot be discussed as fully accurate because of the issues associated with censorship followed by journalists. Moreover, the discussion of the GCC countries’ media regulations in the context of ICCPR laws can also be viewed as biased because the proposed framework is rather broad and not completely related to the context of the Arab world. As a result, Duffy accentuated the â€Å"broad† and â€Å"unclear† character of the majority of proposed regulations in the region (Duffy, 2014, p. 18). In fact, while focusing on the ICCPR statement, the media regulations in the GCC countries can be discussed as aligned with international principles only in several cases. Thus, Duffy’s approach seems to be limited or based in its nature. Related Questions The questions related to the research are the following ones: (1) Is the impact of culture and religion significant to influence the formulation of media regulations in the region? (2) What benefits does the used theoretical framework provide for the research? (3) How do the findings support the idea about the restriction of freedom of expression in the GCC countries? (4) What effects can the current media regulations have on the further development of journalism in the region? Conclusion Referring to Duffy’s research, it is possible to state that the GCC countries do not provide the balanced approach to formulating regulations to guarantee the freedom of expression. However, these regulations are directed to protecting the public other basic rights important in the Arab societies. Therefore, these regulations should be discussed in the context of culture and religion instead of being compared with the international approaches. Reference Duffy, M. J. (2014). Arab media regulations: Identifying restraints on freedom of the press in the laws of six Arabian Peninsula countries. Berkeley Journal of Middle Eastern Islamic Law, 6(1), 1-30. This critical writing on Media Regulations in the GCC Countries was written and submitted by user Paula E. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Social Policies of Music essays

Social Policies of Music essays Social Policies of the Music Industry: Record labels come in all sizes and shapes. There are large, well-funded labels, organized and run by major corporations such as Sony Music and Capital Records. The more money a label has the more people they can hire to handle the various responsibilities in running a label. Smaller, grass roots agencies organize the work of promoting, selling and publicizing their releases by individually taking on multiple tasks. These smaller labels have a challenging job of marketing their records because the organization itself may only consist of two or three employees, including the label owner. A group that small has the duty of talent scouting, calling radio stations for airplay, working with distributors, following up with music retailers, as well as coordinating publicity efforts. Finally, it is the responsibility of a record label to deal directly with its artists and bands, helping them find performances and create tours. The best way to describe a record label is to compare it to an extremely well organized assembly line. Every department at a record label plays an essential role in the success or failure of the company. They are team members, working together toward the goal of selling records, cassettes and CDs as one synchronized machine. There is a very specific pattern of events that have to take place in order for a label to succeed in creating its final output. The result is music, and the following essay is an inside look into the workings of both major and smaller run record labels. My intention is to categorize and break down the various tasks and lines of communication with outside media that exist in maintaining a successful label. As one will see, the larger record labels have the luxury of having several different departments and dozens of employees to carry out the many responsibilities involved in running a label. The smaller companies that have the same amount of wor...

How to Make a Glowing Flower

How to Make a Glowing Flower Use chemistry to make a real flower glow in the dark. Glowing Flower - Method #1 Test a highlighter pen to make sure it glows under black (fluorescent) light. Yellow is reliable, but some other colors glow brightly, too.Use a knife or saw to cut open the pen and expose the fibers which contain the ink. Remove the ink strip.Squeeze dye from the ink pad into a small amount of water.Trim the end of a flower so that it will be able to take up water. Place the flower in the water with the ink.Allow several hours for the flower to absorb the fluorescent ink. When the flower has taken in the ink its petals will glow under black light. Glowing Flower - Method #2 many flowers fluorescent light Pour some tonic water into a vase.Cut the end off of a flower so that it has a fresh surface.Allow several hours for the quinine to be incorporated into the petals of the flower.Turn on a black light and enjoy your flower. Glowing Flower - Method #3 Prepare glowing water using diet tonic water or any color of highlighter that you have established will glow under a black light. Its also possible to use thinned glowing paint.Find a glass or cup that is large enough to accomodate your flower. Fill this container with the glowing liquid.Invert the flower and immerse it in the liquid. Gently swish the flower around to dislodge any air bubbles, since areas with bubbles wont pick up the fluorescent or phosphorescent color.Allow your flower to absorb the dye. Just dipping the flower results in spotty coverage. If you want bright glowing flowers, allow the flowers to absorb the color directly into their petals for an hour or two. You can keep the stem of the flower hydrated by wrapping a bit of dampened paper towel around it.Remove the glowing flower from the liquid. You can place it in a vase filled with water or otherwise display it under a black light. Tips for Making a Glowing Flower White or pale flowers work much better than flowers with deeply colored petals. The pigment in the dark colored flowers blocks nearly all the glowing light.You need fresh healthy flowers. Flowers that are nearly dead wont drink the water and wont glow. Its possible you might be able to inject the ink directly into the flower head, but wouldnt you rather just use a fresh flower?Certain flowers work better than others. Carnations and daisies work better than roses. Basically any flower you can dye with food coloring works well for making a glowing flower. A Note About Glowing Chemicals how to make glowing flowers . If the videos involve giving the flowers a chemical that is already glowing or is fluorescent or phosphorescent under a black light, theres a good chance the instructions are legitimate. However, videos that call for you to mix unlikely chemicals like match heads and peroxide are a scam. Those chemicals will not make your flower glow. Dont be fooled!

Comparing and Contrasting 2 teams together (one good and one bad) Essay

Comparing and Contrasting 2 teams together (one good and one bad) - Essay Example One good example to distinguish the kind of teams with two types of relationship based on communication is the show The Apprentice 1. The show was played in United States in 2004, and it ran for almost 16 weeks. The show's theme was to find an apprentice for the man himself, Trump. There were series of entrepreneurial skills needed to be tested among the contestants, and they were executed in the form of survival games in enterprise settings. The one who will ultimately survive the series of games and tasks directed by Trump will be the one he will finally hire. The first season of the US series employed Bill Rancic as the apprentice in 2004. Although the achievements of the contestants were based on the individual scores of the performance, they were grouped into two "corporations" that were initially based on genders. The women were the team Protg Corporation, and the men named their team Versacorp. There were 16 contestants in all, and during the course of the show, they were accommodated in the 4th floor of the Trump Tower in Manhattan. Their communal lifestyle during the show were mostly aired live and trailing it along as semi-reality drama while carrying out the tasks given to them. These 16 contestants were consisting of experienced in various enterprises they were successfully working with within the United States. They were eight men and eight women that worked in real estate, sales, political consulting, and restaurant management.The show focused on the tasks given to them each week and each team was expected to work as a real working corporations. The whole duration of the carrying out of the tasks by each team was then assessed based on their performance, and their achievements. The weakest among the members upon the assessment will then be "fired" by Trump and his associates in each conclusion of the week's episode; this usually came from the losing team as they will face Trump in a boardroom showdown. On the contrary, the winning team each week will be getting a reward. In summary the Protg Corporation won over the Versacorp. The ultimate winner could be from Versacorp initially, but on the proceeding of the show, the two teams reshuffled with their remaining members. The Protg Corporation won the challenges as they worked as team - a good team. Leadership on the group varies each week and each task. Thus, almost every contestant, aside from the ones who got fired without their turn, had a chance to lead their corresponding teams. In each winning team every week, it was observed that coming up with a good strategy helps a team to function effectively, not just focusing on the Protg Corporation alone. To be able to come up with a good strategy, upon observation as well, good communication is needed. An example is the 2nd week of the

Comparing and Contrasting 2 teams together (one good and one bad) Essay

Comparing and Contrasting 2 teams together (one good and one bad) - Essay Example One good example to distinguish the kind of teams with two types of relationship based on communication is the show The Apprentice 1. The show was played in United States in 2004, and it ran for almost 16 weeks. The show's theme was to find an apprentice for the man himself, Trump. There were series of entrepreneurial skills needed to be tested among the contestants, and they were executed in the form of survival games in enterprise settings. The one who will ultimately survive the series of games and tasks directed by Trump will be the one he will finally hire. The first season of the US series employed Bill Rancic as the apprentice in 2004. Although the achievements of the contestants were based on the individual scores of the performance, they were grouped into two "corporations" that were initially based on genders. The women were the team Protg Corporation, and the men named their team Versacorp. There were 16 contestants in all, and during the course of the show, they were accommodated in the 4th floor of the Trump Tower in Manhattan. Their communal lifestyle during the show were mostly aired live and trailing it along as semi-reality drama while carrying out the tasks given to them. These 16 contestants were consisting of experienced in various enterprises they were successfully working with within the United States. They were eight men and eight women that worked in real estate, sales, political consulting, and restaurant management.The show focused on the tasks given to them each week and each team was expected to work as a real working corporations. The whole duration of the carrying out of the tasks by each team was then assessed based on their performance, and their achievements. The weakest among the members upon the assessment will then be "fired" by Trump and his associates in each conclusion of the week's episode; this usually came from the losing team as they will face Trump in a boardroom showdown. On the contrary, the winning team each week will be getting a reward. In summary the Protg Corporation won over the Versacorp. The ultimate winner could be from Versacorp initially, but on the proceeding of the show, the two teams reshuffled with their remaining members. The Protg Corporation won the challenges as they worked as team - a good team. Leadership on the group varies each week and each task. Thus, almost every contestant, aside from the ones who got fired without their turn, had a chance to lead their corresponding teams. In each winning team every week, it was observed that coming up with a good strategy helps a team to function effectively, not just focusing on the Protg Corporation alone. To be able to come up with a good strategy, upon observation as well, good communication is needed. An example is the 2nd week of the

Rational choice theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Rational choice theory - Essay Example Specifically, rational choice theory also claims that the decision maker knows all the potential alternatives and that s/he makes a decision after evaluating them all (Heath 2001). Decision-making process in organizations can be distinguished as automatic— regular decisions made in accordance to established guiding principles—or non-programmed—choices necessitating new and innovative solutions (White 2006). Furthermore, decisions vary with regard to the level of risk present, ranging from those wherein the results of a decision are fairly definite to those wherein results are considerably indefinite. Indefinite circumstances are communicates as probability statements derived from either subjective or objective facts (Heath 2001). Rational choice theory portrays decision makers as systematically rummaging around appropriate and relevant information to make the best possible decision. This essay will discuss the premises of rational choice theory, its implications on managerial decision making, and the validity of the argument that ‘individuals are rational and normally act as maximizing entrepreneurs’. Rationality is revered in the Western world. A rational choice is one that arises in structured procedures and maximizes a value, regardless if it is marketability, controllability, reliability, efficiency, integrity, or any of numerous other values (Goodin 1998). Observance of any value requires upholding one alternative over another. According to rational choice theory there are major steps to making a rational decision (Allingham 2002). The endeavor is as crucial as the ultimate decision, due to the fact that each step affords an opportunity to re-evaluate the minimized and maximized values (Allingham 2002). The first step is problem definition. This entails identifying key variables under consideration and analyzing the

Normative ethics Essay Example for Free

Normative ethics Essay Metaethics talks about the nature of ethics and moral reasoning. Discussions about whether ethics is relative and whether we always act from self-interest are examples of meta-ethical discussions. In fact, drawing the conceptual distinction between Metaethics, Normative Ethics, and Applied Ethics is itself a metaethical analysis. Normative ethics is interested in determining the content of our moral behavior. Normative ethical theories seek to provide action-guides; procedures for answering the Practical Question (What ought I to do? ). The moral theories of Kant and Bentham are examples of normative theories that seek to provide guidelines for determining a specific course of moral action. Think of the Categorical Imperative in the case of the former and the Principle of Utility in the case of the latter. Applied Ethics attempts to deal with specific realms of human action and to craft criteria for discussing issues that might arise within those realms. The contemporary field of Applied Ethics arouse in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Today, it is a thriving part of the field of ethics. Numerous books and web-sites are devoted to topics such as Business Ethics, Computer Ethics, and Engineering Ethics. Ethical Relativism Distinctions within Relativism There is a distinction between morals and mores. The latter can be defined as harmless customs (e. g. , tea at 4); the former as treatment of others (e. g. , the practice of Apartheid). In discussing Relativism, we are concerned only with moral practices. The Problem of Relativism: What one society considers Right, another Society considers Wrong. Therefore, RIGHT AND WRONG are RELATIVE to a PARTICULAR SOCIETY. Here we need to be aware of two things: (1) Confusing harmless conventions (The British drive on the left side of the road) with harmful practices (Clitorectomy is customary among the Somali). (2) Even if moralities may differ from society to society, it need not follow that Morality Itself is relative for there is a further distinction between CULTURAL (descriptive) RELATIVISM and NORMATIVE (Ethical) RELATIVISM. Cultural (descriptive) Relativism: The descriptive relativist simply notes certain sociological FACTS: (a) Factual Claims: x is considered right in Society y at time t and x is considered wrong in Society z at time t. (b) Empirical Conclusion: Moralities are relative [Note that the claims of Cultural Relativism are either true or false. ] Normative (ethical) Relativism The normative relativist goes BEYOND any sociological facts. (a) Normative Claim: What is considered right in Society x at time t IS right for that Society. (b) Theoretical (metaethical) Claim: Morality Itself is Relative. Note that ethical relativism does not logically follow from any truths uncovered by descriptive relativism. Note also that the ethical relativist has a hard time explaining how radical moral change can occur within a certain society (as with slavery or womens suffrage in the United States). Ethical Egoism Psychological and Ethical Egoism. As a metaethical theory of motivation, psychological egoism asserts the descriptive claim that all of our actions can be reduced to self-interest: Whenever people do something, it is only because they think something desirable for themselves will result from it. The claim is descriptive and thus open to counterexamples, and it is broad, stating a reductionistic thesis regarding all of our actions. (Contrast psychological egoism with the psychological state of sympathy, where the weal and woe of the other becomes the motive for our action.) Ethical egoism is a normative theory that states that our actions ought to be done from the perspective of self-interest. One of the problems with this position is that it might not be in ones self-interest to have eveyone act from the perspective of self-interest. This state of nature would not be desirable (in Hobbes terms, life would be beastly, brutal, and short) and so it might ultimately be in ones self-interest to enter into a contract with others that would place restraints upon self-interested actions. Utilitarian Theories Utilitarianism Utilitarianism is a normative ethical theory that places the locus of right and wrong solely on the outcomes (consequences) of choosing one action/policy over other actions/policies. As such, it moves beyond the scope of ones own interests and takes into account the interests of others. Bentham’s Utility Principle: (1) Recognizes the fundamental role of pain and pleasure in human life, (2) approves or disapproves of an action on the basis of the amount of pain or pleasure brought about i.e, consequences, (3) equates good with pleasure and evil with pain, and (4) asserts that pleasure and pain are capable of quantification (and hence measure). In measuring pleasure and pain, Bentham introduces the following criteria: INTENSITY, DURATION, CERTAINTY (or UNCERTAINTY), and its NEARNESS (or FARNESS). He also includes its fecundity (will more of the same follow? ) and its purity (its pleasure wont be followed by pain vice versa). In considering actions that affect numbers of people, we must also account for its EXTENT. John Stuart Mill adjusted the more hedonistic tendencies in Benthams philosophy by emphasizing (1) It is not the quantity of pleasure, but the quality of happiness that is central to utilitarianism, (2) the calculus is unreasonable qualities cannot be quantified (there is a distinction between higher and lower pleasures), and (3) utilitarianism refers to the Greatest Happiness Principle it seeks to promote the capability of achieving happiness (higher pleasures) for the most amount of people (this is its extent). Act and Rule Utilitarianism. We can apply the principle of utility to either PARTICULAR ACTIONS or GENERAL RULES. The former is called act-utilitarianism and the latter is called rule-utilitarianism. Act-utilitarianism The principle of utility is applied directly to each alternative act in a situation of choice. The right act is then defined as the one which brings about the best results (or the least amount of bad results). * Criticisms of this view point to the difficulty of attaining a full knowledge and certainly of the consequences of our actions. * It is possible to justify immoral acts using AU: Suppose you could end a regional war by torturing children whose fathers are enemy soliders, thus revealing the hide outs of the fathers. Rule-utilitarianism The principle of utility is used to determine the validity of rules of conduct (moral principles). A rule like promise-keeping is established by looking at the consequences of a world in which people broke promises at will and a world in which promises were binding. Right and wrong are then defined as following or breaking those rules. * Some criticisms of this position point out that if the Rules take into account more and more exceptions, RU collapses into AU. * More genearl criticisms of this view argue that it is possible to generate unjust rules according to the principle of utility. For example, slavery in Greece might be right if it led to an overall achievement of cultivated happiness at the expense of some mistreated individuals. Deontological Theories Acting from Duty Deontological normative ethical theories place the locus of right and wrong in autonomous adherence to moral laws or duties. Monistic deontology Kants Categorical Imperative (Act only on that maxim whereby thou canst at the same time will that it should become a universal law) provides the source of right action. Its first formulation states Act as if the maxim of your action were to secure through your will a universal law of nature; its second formulation states Always act so as to treat humanity, whether in your own person or that of another, as an end in itself, never as a means only. Actions that conform to these imperatives (i. e., right actions) and are, furthermore, done from a sense of duty, are the epitome of morally praiseworthy actions. Critics of Kants approach claim that his Categorical Imperative does not contain within it a way to resolve conflicts of duties. Lying is wrong can be interpreted as Never lie and thus Universal Principles can harden into Absolute Principles. Pluralistic deontology For the 20th Century philosopher W. D. Ross, there are a number of duties that reflection reveals and these form a group of prima facie obligations. The phrase prima facie (all things being equal) refers to the fact that these duties do not bind us absolutely, but rather that they generally hold absent any further considerations. Two key duties are nonmaleficence (dont harm others) and beneficence (help others). Other prima facie duties include dont lie, dont kill, keep promises, etc. When conflicts occur between duties, our actual duty becomes that which intuitive judgment discerns as the right thing to do (e. g. , lying to save the life of an innocent person). Critics are cautious about referring to intuition as the criterion for determining our actual course of action. Stephen Toulmin suggested that we weigh up, as well as we can, the risks involved in ignoring either, and choose the lesser of two evils. Thus, while the principles may be deontic in nature, a resolution of conflicts of principles could appeal to probable consequences. Virtue Ethics Historical Perspective There is a long tradition in ethics that places great importance on the kind of person one is. We not only want those around us to tell the truth (for example, according to the Categorical Imperative), but also to be honest. Both Aristotle (arete) and Aquinas (virtu) emphasized this aspect of ethics by highlighting the role of what we would today call character in their discussions of ethics (and the classic virtues of courage, justice, and moderation). David Hume also gave virtue and personal merit a key role in his ethical theory. The recent revival of interest in virtue ethics can be traced back to Philippa Foot. She writes that a person’s virtue may be judged by his innermost desires as well as by his intentions; and this fits with our idea that a virtue such as generosity lies as much in someone’s attitudes as in his actions . The Moral Concept of Virtue We should distinguish the virtues found in a particular society or culture (e. g. , chastity) from those virtues that can be supported by moral reasoning (e. g. , honesty). A virtue is a trait of character that is socially valued, and a moral virtue is a trait that is morally valued†¦Moral reasons must support a claim†¦of moral virtue . By emphasizing the priority of character in discussions of ethics, virtue theorists can say: †¦rather than using rules and government regulations to protect subjects in research, some claim that the most reliable protection is the presence of an ‘informed, conscientious, compassionate, responsible researcher’. The underlying view here is that character is more important than conformity to rules and that virtues should be inculcated and cultivated over time through educational interactions, role models, etc. A practical consequence of this view is that the education of, for example medical doctors, should include the cultivation of virtues such as compassion, discernment, trustworthiness, integrity, conscientiousness as well as benevolence (desire to help) and nonmalevolence (desire to avoid harm). Critical Evaluation of Virtue Ethics Often times we encounter morality between strangers (as when one enters an Emergency Room after a car accident). At these times, it’s not the person’s character, but his/her need to follow rules and procedures that seem to come to the forefront (Virtue is not enough). Furthermore, persons of ‘good character’ can certainly formulate ‘bad policy’ or make a ‘poor choice’ and we need to evaluate those policies and choices according to moral principles. Constructive Evaluation of Virtue Ethics Yet †¦ethical theory is more complete if the virtues are included†¦motives deserve to be at center stage in a way that some leading traditional theories have inadequately appreciated †¦ To look at acts without also looking at the moral appropriateness and desirability of feelings, attitudes, forms of sympathy, and the like is to miss a large area of the moral picture (BC, 4th Ed., 69) Liberal Rights and Communitarian Theories Today we often find moral problems framed by perspectives derived from political philosophy. Issues like euthanasia, stem cell research and abortion as well as distributive justice concerns such as social security and medicare, are likely to be seen along the liberal/conservative divide. Traditional moral theories need to take these frameworks into consideration. Will Kymlicka’s Introduction to Political Philosophy provides analyses of the philosophical ideas behind the â€Å"ideological debates† that now envelop many topics in moral philosophy. Of particular value is his discussion of liberal equality, libertarianism, and communitarianism. Liberal equality is often associated with the work on John Rawls in his Theory of Justice. It argues that we should rationally affirm two fundamental principles of justice designed to protect our political liberties and social opportunities. It can be directly contrasted with the libertarian ideas found in Robert Nozick’s Anarchy, State, and Utopia. Nozick challenges Rawls’s approach to social inequalities and argues for a minimalist state. But both authors (and their followers) conceive of individuals as ‘Socratic’ in nature, capable of reasoning about their life plan and questioning, in principle, the world around them. In this sense, they are both ‘liberals’ in the tradition of John Stuart Mill’s essay, â€Å"On Liberty. † â€Å"For liberals, the question about the good life requires us to make a judgment about what sort of a person we wish to be†. Thus liberals will emphasize the role of choice and freedom from government interference in private matters. For communitarians, on the other hand, individuals are not atomistic, ‘unencumbered selves’ individuals are situated within a community, embedded in the received wisdom of our human culture. Communal values are ‘authoritative horizons’ wherein we take our orientation toward life . The self is not prior to, but rather constituted by, its ends we cannot distinguish ‘me’ from ‘my ends’ [and] our selves are at least partly constituted by ends that we do not choose, but rather discover by virtue of our being embedded in some shared social context . Since self-determination does not occur in a vacuum, the government needs to support a social environment that is conducive to the development of what is best in all of us. For those communitarians who are social conservatives, this will often take the form of a promotion family values that can, for example, discourage changes in the institution of marriage. Broadly speaking, these two positions account for the divide between ‘liberals’ and ‘social conservatives’ in dealing with matters such as abortion and euthanasia. In these situations, liberals tend to become pro-choice and social conservatives tend to become pro-life. ***** As is to be expected in a modern, pluralistic democracy, many of these issues are addressed in the political realm and through the political process (including the courts). But the kinds of cases that arise within these areas should also be addressed within the framework of applied ethics as a way to get clearer about the nature of the problem and its potential for resolution. Indeed, we often see analyses found in applied ethics, such as the concept of a person in the morally significant sense or the distinction between killing and allowing to die, embedded in the political debate itself. Ethics of Care In the 1970s and 80s feminist writers began to question the assumptions behind many of the traditional ethical theories. Carol Gilligan’s work in moral psychology challenged justice-based approaches to moral discussion: men tend to embrace an ethic of rights using quasi-legal terminology and impartial principles †¦ women tend to affirm an ethic of care that centers on responsiveness in an interconnected network of needs, care, and prevention of harm. Taking care of others is the core notion. Annette Baier’s philosophical account of an ethics of care does not recommend that we discard categories of obligation, but that we make room for an ethic of love and trust, including an account of human bonding and friendship. In both of these accounts, there is a specific criticism of Traditional Liberal Theory and its emphasis on impartiality and universality: The impartiality and the ‘standpoint of detached fairness’ advocated by liberal theories of justice, overlook, for example, the moral role of attachment to those close to us. Speaking from the perspective of medical ethics, The care perspective is especially meaningful for roles such as parent, friend, physician, and nurse, in which contextual response, attentiveness to subtle clues, and the deepening of special relationships are likely to be more momentous morally than impartial treatment In articulating the challenge to universal principles, Beauchamp and Childress write: We can produce rough generalizations about how caring physicians and nurses respond to patients, for example, but these generalizations will not be subtle enough to give helpful guidance for the next patient. Each situation calls for a set of responses outside any generalization†¦. Proponents of an Ethics of Care emphasize the roles of Mutual Interdependence and Emotional Response that play an important part in our moral lives: †¦many human relationships involve persons who are vulnerable, dependent, ill, and frail †¦ [and] the desirable moral response is attached attentiveness to needs, not detached respect for rights (BC, 373) and The person who acts from rule-governed obligations without appropriately aligned feelings such as worry when a friend suffers seems to have a moral deficiency. In addition†¦insight into the needs of others and considerate alertness to their circumstances often come from the emotions more than reason. Thus the emotions seem to have a ‘cognitive role,’ allowing us to grasp a situation that may not be immediately available to one arguing solely from a ‘justice perspective. ’ Critical Evaluation of the Care Ethic The example of a nurse who personally wants to help a patient die, but who will not do so as it violates professional duty, shows that †¦the ethics of care must confront situations in which bona fide requirements of impartiality conflict with acting partially from care. Some feminists actually interpret the ‘care ethic’ as culturally determined by the male hierarchy. For example, a terminally ill grand mother may request to be allowed to die because she doesn’t want to be ‘a bother’ to her family. Here someone like Susan Sherwin sees a need to examine the social context of care as well as to establish limits to the ethics of care. Both enterprises would involve appeals to justice†¦ Constructive Evaluation of the Care Ethic Sensitivity and emotional response to particular situations (like family discussions with physicians) provide important guides to morally acceptable actions. A care ethic also seems to favor adopting procedures from Conflict Resolution and Dispute Mediation as alternative ways to approach an apparent ethical conflict. Hedonism The term â€Å"hedonism,† from the Greek word (hedone) for pleasure, refers to several related theories about what is good for us, how we should behave, and what motivates us to behave in the way that we do. All hedonistic theories identify pleasure and pain as the only important elements of whatever phenomena they are designed to describe. If hedonistic theories identified pleasure and pain as merely two important elements, instead of the only important elements of what they are describing, then they would call it Hedonism uld not be nearly as unpopular as they all are. However, the claim that pleasure and pain are the only things of ultimate importance is what makes hedonism distinctive and philosophically interesting. Philosophical hedonists tend to focus on hedonistic theories of value, and especially of well-being (the good life for the one living it). As a theory of value, hedonism states that all and only pleasure is intrinsically valuable and all and only pain is intrinsically not valuable. Hedonists usually define pleasure and pain broadly, such that both physical and mental phenomena are included. Thus, a gentle massage and recalling a fond memory are both considered to cause pleasure and stubbing a toe and hearing about the death of a loved one are both considered to cause pain. With pleasure and pain so defined, hedonism as a theory about what is valuable for us is intuitively appealing. Indeed, its appeal is evidenced by the fact that nearly all historical and contemporary treatments of well-being allocate at least some space for discussion of hedonism. Unfortunately for hedonism, the discussions rarely endorse it and some even deplore its focus on pleasure. This article begins by clarifying the different types of hedonistic theories and the labels they are often given. Then, hedonism’s ancient origins and its subsequent development are reviewed. The majority of this article is concerned with describing the important theoretical divisions within Prudential Hedonism and discussing the major criticisms of these approaches. The Origins of Hedonism . a. Aristippus and the Cyrenaics The Cyrenaics, founded by Artistippus were also sceptics and Hedonistic Egoists. Although the paucity of original texts makes it difficult to confidently state all of the justifications for the Cyrenaics’ positions, their overall stance is clear enough. The Cyrenaics believed pleasure was the ultimate good and everyone should pursue all immediate pleasures for themselves. They considered bodily pleasures better than mental pleasures, presumably because they were more vivid or trustworthy. The Cyrenaics also recommended pursuing immediate pleasures and avoiding immediate pains with scant or no regard for future consequences. Their reasoning for this is even less clear, but is most plausibly linked to their sceptical views – perhaps that what we can be most sure of in this uncertain existence is our current bodily pleasures. b. Epicurus Epicurus founder of Epicureanism, developed a Normative Hedonism in stark contrast to that of Aristippus. The Epicureanism of Epicurus is also quite the opposite to the common usage of Epicureanism; while we might like to go on a luxurious â€Å"Epicurean† holiday packed with fine dining and moderately excessive wining, Epicurus would warn us that we are only setting ourselves up for future pain. For Epicurus, happiness was the complete absence of bodily and especially mental pains, including fear of the Gods and desires for anything other than the bare necessities of life. Even with only the limited excesses of ancient Greece on offer, Epicurus advised his followers to avoid towns, and especially marketplaces, in order to limit the resulting desires for unnecessary things. Once we experience unnecessary pleasures, such as those from sex and rich food, we will then suffer from painful and hard to satisfy desires for more and better of the same. No matter how wealthy we might be, Epicurus would argue, our desires will eventually outstrip our means and interfere with our ability to live tranquil, happy lives. Epicureanism is generally egoistic, in that it encourages everyone to pursue happiness for themselves. However, Epicureans would be unlikely to commit any of the selfish acts we might expect from other egoists because Epicureans train themselves to desire only the very basics, which gives them very little reason to do anything to interfere with the affairs of others. c. The Oyster Example With the exception of a brief period discussed below, Hedonism has been generally unpopular ever since its ancient beginnings. Although criticisms of the ancient forms of hedonism were many and varied, one in particular was heavily cited. In Philebus, Plato’s Socrates and one of his many foils, Protarchus in this instance, are discussing the role of pleasure in the good life. Socrates asks Protarchus to imagine a life without much pleasure but full of the higher cognitive processes, such as knowledge, forethought and consciousness and to compare it with a life that is the opposite. Socrates describes this opposite life as having perfect pleasure but the mental life of an oyster, pointing out that the subject of such a life would not be able to appreciate any of the pleasure within it. The harrowing thought of living the pleasurable but unthinking life of an oyster causes Protarchus to abandon his hedonistic argument. The oyster example is now easily avoided by clarifying that pleasure is best understood as being a conscious experience, so any sensation that we are not consciously aware of cannot be pleasure.

An Evaluation Of Nullsoft Winamp :: essays research papers

Nullsoft Winamp is a fast, flexible, high fidelity music player for Windows 95/98/NT. Winamp supports MP3, MP2, CD, MOD, WAV and other audio formats. Winamp also supports custom interfaces called skins, audio visualization and audio effect plug-ins. Nullsoft also provides a high quality website at http://www.winamp.com. The Winamp homepage provides support, information, software downloads, and music downloads for Nullsoft’s music products. Winamp is a high quality music player for your personal computer. The first thing to look for when considering a program to play music on your computer is sound quality. Nullsoft Winamp has the ability to play CD quality sound from MP3, MP2, CD, MOD, WAV and other audio formats. Winamp has a ten band graphic equalizer and built-in pre-amplifier that allows the user greater control over sound quality even before the music passes through a sound card or speakers. If you are not comfortable with changing the equalizer settings yourself, Winamp has hundreds of preset settings which are categorized by music type. Examples of this include Jazz, Rock, Reggae, and many more. Winamp users even have the ability to create and save song-specific pre-amplifier and equalizer settings. Another important factor in choosing a music program for your computer is customizable features. Winamp meets this criterion well. The ability to customize your music player makes the program easier to use. The user has the ability to make a â€Å"Play list† from the music files that are stored on the hard drive of the user’s computer. Play lists are easy to load and are not difficult to create. The Nullsoft Winamp website has a Plugin and Skin collection available for downloads to further customize your copy of Winamp. There are hundreds of different plugins and skins to choose from. Plugins for Winamp range from audio visualization oscilloscopes to audio effects like distortion and surround sound. Skin categories range from different colors to cartoons and artwork. Technically advanced users can even create their own skins. Customer service and technical support services are important with any product, especially when a user is unfamiliar with the product. The Winamp program can be difficult to learn and use without some instruction. However, Nullsoft Winamp provides a stable and easy to navigate website that includes many helpful services. Customer service and technical support are available through chat and via email from the Winamp homepage. Customers have the ability to read step-by-step instructions on how to use Winamp and all of its custom features by clicking on easy to see links.

The Western Roman Empire – the Rise & Fall

Western Roman Empire | A map depicting the separate empires of Rome| Mediterranean Society: The Roman Phase From Kingdom To Republic The Etruscans and Rome (Previous Wiki notes) There are many different versions on how Rome started the ones told to kids are very simple with very few names: . Ancient Rome for Kids  The story of Romulus and Remus for adults have dates, more names and details:  Wolf Country, Myth and Stories You can find many versions of myths, however the version the text book talks about Aeneas, a refugee from Troy who migrated to Italy when Greek invaders destroyed his land.Tow of his decedents, twins; Romulus and Remus, almost didn't survive infancy because and evil uncle abandoned them by a flooded Tiber River. A she-wolf found them and nursed them back to health. When the boys grew older, Romulus founded the city of Rome and established himself as its first kind in 753 B. C. E. However scholars tell a different story. Some Greek historians believe that Aeneas settled at Rome, which was a small city-state. In the fourth century B. C. , Rome began to expand and Romans came into greater contact with the Greeks, which suggest that Aeneas has a role in the creation of the great city.In the first century B. C. , the Roman Poet Virgil developed the Aeneas myth in his epic poem the  Aeneid, which talked about Aeneas’ journey to Rome. Augustus, the first Roman emperor and emperor during Virgil’s time, and Julius Caesar, his great uncle and predecessor as the Roman ruler, were known to be decedents of Aeneas. ( Information founded in the article:  This Day in History: Rome founded) The text book talks about how Indo-Europeans migrated crossed the Alps and settled through the Italian peninsula, including the future site of Rome. The Roman Republic and Its ConstitutionThe Romans got rid of the last Etruscan king in 509 B. C. E. The republican constution had two consuls; military and civil. These consuls were elected by an assembly that was dominated by the high class, or patricians. There was also a senate which advised the consuls and helped ratify major decisions. Because both the senate and consuls represented only the interests of the patricians there were many conflicts between the patricians and the lower class, or plebeians. To solve these conflicts, the patricians gave the plebeians tribunes, or people the plebeians could elect to speak for them.The tribunes had the  power  to intervene and veto decisions. The plebeians began to gain  power, by the early third century B. C. E the plebeians' tribunes dominated Roman politics. From Republic To Empire Imperial Expansion and Domestic Problems During the second and first centuries B. C. E, the relations between the classes were so strained that there was much conflict and violence. Two brothers, Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus worked to spread the land possesion and tried to limit the ammount of land a certain person could hold. Unfortunately though, the y were both assasinated for fear of gaining influence over Roman affairs.The people that were in control of the political  power, were of a small class that used the power to only help themselves and their class. In 87 B. C. E Marius marched on Rome and during the first century B. C. E, Rome was in civil war. When Marius died the next year, Sulla planned to take power and soon did in 83 B. C. E. Many conservatives supported Sulla because he imposed many conservative legislation. The Foundation of Empire Julius Caesar seized Rome in 49 B. C. E by being a very popular public figure. He believed strongly in  social  reform and conquered Gaul.He was responsible for a lot of  social  reforms and changed the gonvernment to centralized control. Caesar claimed the title â€Å"dictator for life†, which earned him his assasination in 44 B. C. E. After Caesar was killed, his adopted son, Octavian, after defeating Mark Antony, took over Rome and brought civil conflict to an end . The senate bestowed the title â€Å"Augustus,† to him in 27 B. C. E. He ran a monarchy disguised as a republic. While he was in power, a new standing army was created and the imperial institutions began to take root. Continuing Expansion and Integration of the EmpireThe two centuries following Augustus's rule, the Romans conquered lands in the Mediterranean basin, western Europe, and down the Nile to Kush. For two and a half centuries into the third century a long era of peace was prevelant among economic and political integration, this was called  pax romana, or â€Å"Roman peace†. Another important Roman advance was the road and highway system. The new road systems created were very well engineered and allowed for extremely quick and urgent travel, which improved the postal system extremely. Also during this time, Romans began developing a system of written law at about 450 B. C. E.They developed a system called the Twelve Tables, which was a basic law code for c itizens for the early republic. Economy and Society In the Roman Mediterranean Trade and Urbanization Latifundia owners grew various crops to export in North Africa, Egypt, and Sicily. Ships carried several hundred tons of crops to cities for consumers. Other cities and regions could now focus on cultivating fruits and vegetables or manufacturing goods. Archaeologists have uncovered a pottery factory north of Rome that probably employed hundreds of workers and had a mixing vat that could hold more than 10,568 gallons (40,000 liters) of clay.The Mediterranean lake became an essential lake for the Romans because it linked many cities and was used for trading. They called the lake  mare nostrum  which means â€Å"our sea. † The Roman military and navy kept the seas mostly free of pirates to ensure that cargoes could move freely over long distances. The city of Rome received taxes, tributes, booty and other wealth from military expansion. Rome also received most of the profit from Mediterranean trade. The money was used for urban development. In the first century C. E. , there were about 10,000 statues, 700 pools, 500 fountains, and 36 monumental arches.The state financed the construction of temples, bath houses, public buildings, stadiums, and aqueducts. The aqueducts were very important because they brought fresh water to Rome. They used concrete (invented by Roman engineers) to build the aqueducts because it is very strong. The population increased dramatically because construction employed hundreds of thousands of workers. Family and Society in Roman Times The eldest male was usually the head of the common Roman family and ruled as  Pater Familias, or â€Å"father of the family†.As the pater families, the father could do anything he wanted with his children, like planning weddings or even executing them. Despite Roman law, women could hold high influence within the family. The women also would help plan weddings and even help with family fi nances by finding loopholes in Roman Law. As time went on, new classes of people accumulated lots of private wealth for themselves. The wealthy would live in palaces and eat exotic dishes with animal tongues in them. If there are wealthy people, there are lots of poor people, who became a big problem in Rome.The poor would often riot, but the government used a technique called â€Å"Bread and Circuses† where they would supply the poor with subsidized grain and spectacular public entertainment. One big part of Roman society was the slaves. About one third (Two sixths, three ninths, etc. ,) of the population were slaves; most of which worked on Latifundia, while others worked mines. During the second and first centuries, slaves would often revolt. One of the more serious revolts being in 73 BCE where 70,000 slaves rebelled was led by Spartacus. City slaves had a much less difficult life.Female slaves worked as servants, whereas educated or talented male slaves could lead comfor table lives, such as Epictetus, who became a Stoic philosopher. Some slaves hoped for manumission, so they could leave the slave life behind. This was not mandatory for owners, so they slaves still had to work under the owner's command until they might be set free. The owners could do anything they wanted to with the slaves. The Cosmopolitan Mediterranean Greek Philosophy and Religions of Salavation The Romans believed in Gods and Goddesses who intervened in human affairs, and tutelary deities who looked after the welfare of families.As the Roman empire grew, they experienced more cultures, which lead to them adopting deities from other people and adapted them to their own purposes. As well as using other cultures' deities, they also borrowed religious practices, like animal sacrifices. The Greeks inspired the Romans in ways like rational thought and philosophy. One example is the Stoicism. The Stoics â€Å"sought to identify a set of universal moral standards based on nature and r eason that would transcend local ethical codes†. Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 b. c. e. ) was a Roman thinker who adopted the Stoic values.In adapting Hellenistic thought to Roman needs, Cicero drew heavily from Stoics' moral and ethical teachings. Cicero believed that the pursuit of justice is a person's duty and was against those who sought wealth and power through immoral ways. The majority of people believed in religions of salvation because it gave them a promise of future existence. Religions of salvation became key features of Mediterranean society in the Helenistic times. The roads of the Roman empire not only served as trade routes, but as openings for the word of religious salvation to spread. Mithraism started as a cult for Mithras, a god for the sun and light.Soldiers in Anatolia adapted the cult to their own interests, and related it to strength and courage rather than the sun and light. The cult of Mithras did not allow women, but cults for goddesses like Isis sp read. The cult of Isis was the most popular before Christianity spread. All of these religions spread through the Mediterranean basin. Judaism and Early Christianity In an attempt to encourage political loyalty, emperors often created state cults to worship the emperors as gods. The Jews believed that the creation of these cults was totally outside of the belief of their religion.Jews often refused to pay taxes to the emperors who had claimed themselves to be gods. As the Romans began to spread into the eastern Mediterranean region the relations between the Romans and the Jews became more and more tense. Between the third and first centuries B. C. E. the Jews mounted several rebellious attacks against the Romans but ultimately failed. The Roman forces outfought the rebels during the Jewish War of 66 to 70 C. E. Some Jews actively fought the Romans and others founded new sects that looked for saviors. They observed a strict moral code and participated in rituals designed to reinforce a state of community.They also looked for a savior who would take them away from Roman rule and lead them to establish a community in which they could practice faith without interference. The early Christians probably had little contact with them but had many of the same concerns. Christians formed their community around Jesus of Nazareth. | Jesus of Nazareth| The Fall of the Roman Empire Internal Decay in the Roman Empire Although it is perceived that the collapse of the Roman empire only had one cause, there were actually multiple causes that caused the fall of the empire.The combination of internal problems and external pressures proved deadly for the civilization. Internal political problems included internal opposition, which was mostly the work of the 26 claimants. The claimants were successors to the imperial throne, and were nicknamed â€Å"barracks emperors. † Their deaths were violent, often times because of one another, and held their power for short periods of ti me. The shear size of the Roman empire also proved problematic for the future of Rome. Central governments were difficult to control over large areas, and epidemics soon spread like wildfire over the uncontrolled region.Eventually, self-sufficient economies took the place of a large central government. Diocletian, who reigned from 284-305 CE, attempted to solve the problem of size by dividing the empire into two administrative districts. Two co-emperors ruled the districts, with the aid of lieutenants and 4 officials, or tetrarchs. Only these officials were allowed to minister. Diocletian was a skilled administrator who brought Rome's armies under control, and strengthened the imperial currency. Although his war strategies were more effective than his economic ones, this helped stabilize Rome's economy.His retirement later resulted in civil war. Constantine was the son of Diocletian's co-ruler Constantius became the emperor. Constantine wanted to become the sole emperor of Rome, so he reunited the Eastern and Western districts of Rome. Constantine wanted a new capital for the new united empire, so he built the city of Constantinople. Old problems of centralized government arose from this reunion, as both the population and economy of reunited Rome declined. There were no resources left to protect the new empire and its people, ending the reign of Constantine.Germanic Invasions and the Fall of the Western Roman Empire Military threat from migratory Germanic peoples and Germanic invasions brought an end to Roman authority in the western half of the empire, while the eastern half survived another millennium. The Visigroths, the most famous of this group of migrants, adopted Roman culture and laws, but were advised to settle outside of the imperial boundaries. The Huns, who migrated from Central Asia, were brilliantly led by the warrior-king Atilla, who organized the Huns into a nearly unstoppable military unit. They attacked Germanic peoples living on Roman empir e boundaries.The Huns disappeared after Atilla's death, but the Germanic peoples had such an effect from their violence that they began to seek refuge in Rome. They scattered in settlements throughout the Western Roman empire, and later overthrew the governments they were living under. The Visiogroths, under the leadership of Alaric, sacked Rome in 410 CE. Odovacer, a Germanic ruler, deposed Romulus Agustulus, ending the Western Roman empire. Cultural Change in the Late Roman Empire Germanic peoples governed and organized society with their own traditions now that they lacked the guardianship of the Romans.They adopted some Roman influence, mostly Roman laws which resonated deeply within their systems. Roman and Germanic traditions later blended to form Medieval Europe. Christianity survived the Roman empire collapse, and it became a huge influencer in the region. Constantine promulgated the  Edict of Milan,  which allowed Christians to practice their faith openly in the Roman e mpire. Constantine himself converts to Christianity, and the later emperor, Theodosius, makes Christianity the official religion of the Roman empire.Christianity historically resonated with the lower classes and women because of its equal nature, but during the 4th century CE, that began to change when intellectual elites began to take more interest in Christianity. St. Augustine (354-430 CE) was he most important and influential figure in the spread of Christianity after the collapse of the Western Roman empire. He was a bishop of Hippo, (a town in Northern Africa) and worked to reconcile Christianity with Greek and Roman philosophical traditions, and to articulate Christianity with the upper classes.Controversy arose within the religion, putting tension between people who interpreted the Christian doctrine in different ways. The foundation of the institutional church formed shortly after these disputes began to arise. The bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, and 4 patriarchs, were t he church officials. Bishops and patriarchs would assemble in church councils to solve disputes, often times over the interpretations of Christine doctrines. In the meantime, missionaries converted Germanic peoples to Christianity.

The Return: Shadow Souls Chapter 43

Elena had a feeling she couldn't quite describe. It wasn't letdown. It was†¦let up. For what seemed like most of her life she had been searching for Stefan. But now she had him back again, quite safe and clean (he'd had a long bath while she insisted on scrubbing him gently with all sorts of brushes and pumice stones, and then a shower, and then a rather cramped shower with her). His hair was drying into the silky soft dark shock – a little longer than he usually kept it – that she knew. He hadn't had energy for frivolities like keeping his hair short and clean before. Elena understood that. And now†¦there were no guards or kitsune around to spy on them. There was nothing to keep them from each other. They had been playful in the shower, splashing each other, Elena always making sure to keep her feet on the no-slip guard and ready to try to support Stefan's lanky weight. But they could not be playful now. The shower's spray had been very helpful, too – at concealing the teardrops that kept flowing down Elena's cheeks. She could – oh, dear heaven – count and feel each one of his ribs. He was just bones and skin, her beautiful Stefan, but his green eyes were alive, sparkling and dancing in his pale face. After they were dressed in nightclothes they simply sat on the bed for a little while. Sitting together, both breathing – Stefan had got into the habit from being around humans so much and, recently, from trying to eke out the small amount of nutrition he received – in synchronicity, and both feeling the other's warm body beside them†¦it was almost too much. Then, almost tentatively, Stefan groped for Elena's hand, and catching it, held it in both of his, turning it over wonderingly. Elena was swallowing and swallowing, trying to make a start in a conversation, felt herself practically radiating bliss. Oh, I never want anything more, she thought, although she knew that soon enough she would want to talk, and to hold, and to kiss, and to feed Stefan. But if someone had asked her if she would have accepted just this, sitting together, communicating by touch and love alone, she would have accepted it. Before she knew it, she was talking, words that came like bubbles out of molasses, only these were bubbles from her soul. â€Å"I thought that somehow I might lose this time. That I'd won so many times, and that this time something would teach me a lesson and you†¦wouldn't make it.† Stefan was still wondering over her hand, bending industriously to kiss each separate finger. â€Å"You call ‘winning' dying in pain and sunlight to save my worthless life – and my even more worthless brother's?† â€Å"I call this a better kind of winning,† Elena admitted. â€Å"Any time we get to be together is winning. Any moment – even in that dungeon†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Stefan winced, but Elena had to finish her thought. â€Å"Even there, to look in your eyes, to touch your hand, to know that you were looking at me and touching me – and that you were happy – well, that's winning, in my book.† Stefan lifted his eyes to hers. In the dim light, the green looked suddenly dark and mysterious. â€Å"And one more thing,† he whispered. â€Å"Because I am what I am†¦and because your crowning glory isn't that glorious golden cloud of hair, but an aura that is†¦ineffable. Indescribable. Beyond any words†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Elena had thought they would sit and simply gaze at each other, drowning in each other's eyes, but that wasn't happening. Stefan's expression had slipped and Elena realized how close to bloodlust – and to death – he still really was. Hurriedly, Elena pulled her damp hair to one side of her neck, and then she leaned back, knowing Stefan would catch her. He did this, but although Elena tilted her chin back, he tilted it down in his two hands to look at her. â€Å"Do you know how much I love you?† he asked. His entire face was masked now, enigmatic and strangely thrilling. â€Å"I don't think you do,† he whispered. â€Å"I've watched and watched how you were willing to do anything, anything to save me†¦but I don't think you know how much that love has been building up, Elena†¦.† Delicious shivers were going down Elena's spine. â€Å"Then you'd better show me,† she whispered. â€Å"Or I might not believe that you mean it – â€Å" â€Å"I'll show you what I mean,† Stefan whispered back. But when he bent down it was to kiss her softly. The feelings inside Elena – that this starving creature wanted to kiss her instead of going at once for her throat, reached a peak that she could not explain in thoughts or words, but only by drawing Stefan's head so that his mouth rested on her neck. â€Å"Please,† she said. â€Å"Oh, Stefan, please.† Then she felt the quick sacrificial pains, and then Stefan was drinking her blood, and her mind, which had been fluttering around like a bird in a lighted room, now saw its nest and its mate and swooped up and up and up to at last reach unity with its best-beloved. After that there was no need for clumsy things like words. They communicated in thoughts as pure and clear as shimmering gems, and Elena rejoiced because all of Stefan's mind was open to her, and none of it was walled off or dark and there were no boulders of secrets or chained and weeping children†¦ What! she heard Stefan exclaim voicelessly. A child in chains? A mountain-sized boulder? Who could have that in their mind – ? Stefan broke off, knowing the answer, even before Elena's lightning-swift thought could tell him. Elena felt the clear green wave of his pity, spiced by the natural anger of a young man who has gone through the depths of hell, but untainted by the terrible black poison of hatred of brother for brother. When Elena had finished explaining all she knew about Damon's mental processes, she said, And I don't know what to do! I've done everything I could, Stefan, I've – I've even loved him. I gave him everything that wasn't yours alone. But I don't know if it's made even the slightest difference. He called Matt â€Å"Matt† instead of Mutt, Stefan interrupted. Yes. I†¦noticed that. I'd kept asking him to, but it never seemed to matter. It mattered this way: you managed to change him. Not many people can. Elena wrapped him in a tight embrace, stopped, worried that it was too tight, and glanced at him. He smiled and shook his head. He was already looking like a person rather than a death camp survivor. You should keep using it, Stefan said voicelessly. Your influence over him is strongest. I will – without any artificial Wings, Elena promised. Then she worried that Stefan would think her too presumptuous – or too attached. But one look at Stefan was enough to assure her that she was doing the right thing. They clung to each other. It wasn't as hard as Elena had imagined it would be – handing Stefan over to other humans to be bled. Stefan had a clean pair of pajamas on, and the first thing he said to all three donors was, â€Å"If you get frightened or change your mind, just say so. I can hear perfectly well, and I'm not in bloodlust. And anyway, I'll probably sense it if you're not enjoying it before you do, and I'll stop. And finally – thank you – thank you all. I've decided to break my oath tonight because there's still some little chance that if I slept I wouldn't wake up tomorrow without you.† Bonnie was horrified and indignant and furious. â€Å"You mean you couldn't sleep all that time because you were afraid to – to†¦?† â€Å"I did fall asleep from time to time, but thank fortune – thank God – I always woke up again. There were times when I didn't dare move to conserve energy, but somehow Elena kept finding ways to come to me, and every single time she came, she brought me some kind of sustenance.† He gave Elena a look that sent her heart spinning out of her chest and high into the stratosphere. And then she set up a schedule, with Stefan being fed every hour on the hour, and then she and the others left the first volunteer, Bonnie, alone, so as to be more comfortable. It was the next morning. Damon had already been out to visit Leigh, the antiques-seller's niece, who had seemed very glad to see him. And now he was back, to look with scorn at the slug-a-beds who were distributed all around the boardinghouse. That was when he saw the bouquet. It was heavily sealed down with wards – amulets to help get it through the dimensional gap. There was something powerful in there. Damon cocked his head to one side. Hmm†¦I wonder what? Dear Diary, I don't know what to say. We're home. Last night we each had a long bath†¦and I was half-disappointed, because my favorite long-handled back-scrubbing brush wasn't there, and there was no star ball to make dreamy music for Stefan – and the water was LUKEWARM! And Stefan went to see if the water heater was turned on all the way and met Damon going to do the same thing! Only, they couldn't because we're home again. But I woke up a couple of hours ago for a few minutes to see the most beautiful sight in the world†¦a sunrise. Pale pink and eerie green in the east, with nighttime still full dark in the west. Then deeper rose in the sky, and the trees all wreathed in dew clouds. Then a shiny glory from the edge of the horizon and dark rose, cream, and even a green melon color in the sky, Finally, a line of fire and in an instant all the colors change. The line becomes an arc, the western sky is deepest deepest blue, and then up comes the sun bringing warmth and light and color to the green trees and the sky begins to become celestial blue – celestial just means heavenly, although somehow, I have a delicious shivery feeling when I say it. The sky becomes a gemlike, celestial, cerulean blue and the golden sun begins to pour energy, love, light, and every good thing onto the world. Who could not be happy to watch this while Stefan held her? We who are so lucky as to be born into the light – who see it every day and never think about it, we're blessed. We could have been born shadow souls who live and die in crimson darkness, never even knowing that somewhere there is something better.

Worked Empirical Formula Chemistry Problem

Worked Empirical Formula Chemistry Problem The empirical formula of a chemical compound gives the ratio of elements, using subscripts to indicate the number of each atom. Its also known as the simplest formula. Here is how to find the empirical formula, with an example: Steps for Finding the Empirical Formula You can find the empirical formula of a compound using percent composition data. If you know the total molar mass of the compound, the molecular formula usually can be determined as well. The easiest way to find the formula is: Assume you have 100 g of the substance (makes the math easier because everything is a straight percent).Consider the amounts you are given as being in units of grams.Convert the grams to moles for each element.Find the smallest whole number ratio of moles for each element. Empirical Formula Problem Find the empirical formula for a compound consisting of 63% Mn and 37% O Solution for Finding the Empirical Formula Assuming 100 g of the compound, there would be 63 g Mn and 37 g OLook up the number of grams per mole for each element using the Periodic Table. There are 54.94 grams in each mole of manganese and 16.00 grams in a mole of oxygen.63 g Mn Ãâ€" (1 mol Mn)/(54.94 g Mn) 1.1 mol Mn37 g O Ãâ€" (1 mol O)/(16.00 g O) 2.3 mol O Find the smallest whole number ratio by dividing the number of moles of each element by the number of moles for the element present in the smallest molar amount. In this case, there is less Mn than O, so divide by the number of moles of Mn: 1.1 mol Mn/1.1 1 mol Mn2.3 mol O/1.1 2.1 mol O The best ratio is Mn:O of 1:2 and the formula is MnO2 The empirical formula is MnO2

Billy Pilgrims Coping Mechanism for PTSD in Kurt Vonnegut’s Slaughterhousee Slaughterhousee

â€Å"Post traumatic stress disorder is a debilitating condition that follows a terrifying event† (Marilyn 8). It occurs when one has witnessed or experienced a traumatic event, such as war, child abuse, or other types of violence. Victims may claim to relive or re-experience events that were traumatic to them. They may even â€Å"feel† or â€Å"hear† things from the event. Other symptoms may include: â€Å"forgetfulness†¦amnesia, excessive fantasizing†¦trancelike states†¦imaginary companion, sleepwalking, and blackouts† (Putman 2). A lot of times, coping mechanisms fail and the following inner dissonance can lead to a multiplicity of upsetting emotional and physical symptoms (Robert Saperstein 2). Some children suffering from PTSD may show traumatic play. This refers to the reenactment of a traumatic experience. Usually, children will change the ending to make it happier. This is an extreme example of using the imagination as a way to escap e the terrible memories. Billy has all the symptoms associated with the disorder as he also used his imagination to escape his bad memories. When Billy Pilgrim goes to war in Germany, he is soon captured by the Germans and taken to a prisoner camp. While there, he is mocked and ridiculed. He is a very passive character, and so is not bothered by this taunting, but when Billy realizes that the war doesn’t just affect soldiers and people, but all animals, such as the horses they find after the bombing of Dresden, his life is scarred forever. He sees that the horses are bleeding from their mouths and that they are in agony when walking. When Billy sees that his colleagues had mistreated the horses, he realizes that that is what war does to the entire world. Billy is forever changed and even weeps (197). This may have been the trigger for PTSD in Billy’s life to begin with. One of case post traumatic stress disorder tells of a Vietnam veteran sleeping with a gun under his pillow and having nightmares so intense that he woke up strangling his wife. Another time, the same veteran saw a neighbor walking outside after dark and dodged under a bush and started crawling around with a gun (McGirk 1).

A reflective report based upon the considerations of career direction Essay

A reflective report based upon the considerations of career direction - Essay Example It is worth mentioning that a better career plan might support individuals in managing along with organising their respective learning and development procedures (Department of Training and Workforce Development, 2011). With this concern, the essay intends to produce a reflective report based upon the considerations of career direction. Various aspects, such as an outline of a relevant structure for developing a career plan, identification of career goals and recognition of strengths along with weaknesses will also be discussed in the following discussion. An Outline of an Appropriate Structure for Developing a Career Plan Knowing Yourself Prior to forming and developing an appropriate structure for developing a career plan, I would like to share my education qualifications and the capabilities that would help me to attain my career goal. I am an undergraduate in the field of business management, having specialisation in Finance. I successfully studied from York St. John University, wherein I creatively developed my capabilities towards new and diverse environments. This can be justified with reference to the fact that the undergraduate program was segregated into dissimilar modules comprising marketing, globalisation, finance and financial management dimensions among others. As the undergraduate program encompassed the aforementioned modules, it made me possible to obtain an in-depth understanding about the conditions prevailing in the modern day business scenario. Apart from these educational qualifications and the capabilities that I possess, I believe my linguistic skills can assist me to attain my predetermined career goal i.e. to become a hotel manager. For instance, my fluency in English language and breakthrough Japanese language would provide active support towards the accomplishment of my career objective. Specially mentioning, I had taken an initiative of self-funding an evening course in language, which I had completed during my first and second yea rs of the program. This initiative eventually raised my capability in planning ahead towards the attainment of my career objective. Understanding the Job Market Prior to provide a brief understanding about the job market, it is quite indispensable to identify my career goal. In this similar concern, my career goal is to become a hotel manager in the UK. It can be apparently observed in this context that the job market in the UK is quite promising and the job opportunity relating to the position of a hotel manager in the region is also likely to be rising in future. With regard to acquire an in-depth understanding about the job market of a hotel manager in the UK, it can be viewed that there prevails nearly 12,000 hotel establishments, engaging a substantial proportion of the entire labour force. The presence of wider range of hotel establishments in the UK can also be observed, ranging from smaller to bigger multinational chains that are engaged in offering quality along with soothi ng services to the guests or the visitors. As